Biomass Energy: Pathways, Potentials, and Challenges for a Sustainable Energy Future

Abstract

Biomass energy represents one of the most versatile renewable energy sources, offering a pathway to reduce reliance on fossil fuels while simultaneously addressing waste management challenges. Derived from organic matter such as agricultural residues, forestry by-products, energy crops, and municipal solid waste, biomass can be transformed into solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels through a variety of thermochemical and biochemical processes. This review critically examines the current state of biomass energy, with emphasis on global resource availability, conversion technologies, sustainability implications, and techno-economic perspectives. The paper explores biochemical routes including anaerobic digestion and fermentation, as well as thermochemical processes such as combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification. Special focus is given to the role of biomass in achieving net-zero emissions and its integration within the circular economy. Benchmarking against fossil-based systems is presented to evaluate efficiency, cost, and life-cycle carbon footprints. Results indicate that biomass energy can contribute up to 20% of global primary energy demand by 2050 under favorable policies, yet challenges such as feedstock logistics, land-use competition, and technological optimization remain. The review concludes that the future of biomass lies in hybrid systems, waste valorization, and integration with carbon capture technologies to ensure both environmental and economic viability.