Sustainable Energy Futures through Biomass: Technological Pathways, Potentials, and Constraints

Abstract

Biomass is a highly versatile renewable resource that can simultaneously displace fossil fuels and mitigate waste management burdens. Sourced from agricultural residues, forestry by-products, dedicated energy crops, and municipal solid waste, it can be converted into solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels via diverse thermo- and biochemical pathways. This review provides a critical assessment of biomass energy with attention to global resource potential, conversion technologies, sustainability impacts, and techno-economic performance. We examine biochemical routes—anaerobic digestion and fermentation—and thermochemical options including combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification. Particular emphasis is placed on biomass’s role in net-zero strategies and its fit within circular-economy models. Comparative benchmarks against fossil systems evaluate efficiency, costs, and life-cycle carbon footprints. Findings suggest biomass could supply up to 20% of global primary energy by 2050 under supportive policy frameworks, while highlighting persistent challenges in feedstock logistics, land-use trade-offs, and process optimization. We conclude that future progress hinges on hybrid configurations, waste valorization, and integration with carbon capture to ensure both environmental integrity and economic viability.